Rousseau's 'The Social Contract'

Note: The philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau is one of the principal architects of modern political thought. His timeless work 'The Social Contract' (1762) is a unique attempt to resolve the eternal conflict between human freedom and state authority. In discussions about democracy, political power, justice, individual liberty, and so on, Rousseau and his writings become relevant in various ways. Previously, 'Akhrā' published summaries of the thoughts of two other influential political theorists, Hobbes and John Locke. In that continuity, today we present a summary of Rousseau's 'The Social Contract.' This is a translation of some modules from James Hill's book 'An Analysis of Jean-Jacques Rousseau’s The Social Contract.'

Who was Jean-Jacques Rousseau?

Jean-Jacques Rousseau, the author of 'The Social Contract' (1762), was born in 1712 in Geneva, Switzerland. His life was diverse and colorful. Initially gaining fame as a composer, he later became known as a writer and scholar, and he emerged as one of Europe's foremost political thinkers.

Rousseau wrote on various topics ranging from music to education. In 1752, he composed a highly popular opera titled 'The Village Soothsayer.' His novel 'Julie, or the New Heloise' was published in 1761; it is considered one of the greatest literary works of the eighteenth century. After his death in 1778, his autobiography 'The Confessions' was published in 1782; the book is still famous for its very bold and candid portrayal of his life.

In Western political philosophy, Jean-Jacques Rousseau is considered one of the foremost thinkers. His ideas on how the legitimacy of a political system is achieved and his deep affection for democracy were revolutionary and controversial at the time. In particular, Rousseau's thoughts on religious freedom angered the Roman Catholic authorities in France, resulting in the banning of his book 'The Social Contract.' The situation was the same in Rousseau's own city of Geneva; there, too, the book was banned and burned.

The French Revolution of 1789-99 led to the end of the monarchy and the establishment of a republic. Since this revolution, which had a widespread social and political impact around the world, Rousseau's ideas have faced criticism. Critics argue that his theories can be used to legitimize authoritarian and totalitarian rule. There is considerable debate, especially regarding Rousseau's concept of the 'general will' (the governance of the people in the interest of the whole community). Critics claim that this concept can be misused to take away individual freedoms.

Author's Background

Rousseau lived through a 'deep social and political change.' He was born just three years before the end of the reign of France's powerful King Louis XIV, and he died only a decade before the French Revolution of 1789-99. This revolution was a time of immense political change, which ultimately led to the complete fall of the monarchy.

At that time, the 'novel' was a new medium of literature; it helped introduce people to new ideas and subjects in a way that had never happened before. Philosophers like David Hume from contemporary Scotland and the highly influential Immanuel Kant from Germany were also discussing these new ideas. They were making fundamental contributions in the fields of metaphysics, religion, economics, ethics, and political theory.

‘The Social Contract’ was written in the context of the changing political and social culture of the time. Indicating towards feudalism, Rousseau scholar Christopher D. Wright argues that this changing culture was the product of a relatively peaceful period in history. He states:

"Having freed themselves from the devastating religious conflicts of the seventeenth century and the lingering feudalism, educated men of a relatively wealthy and peaceful era were able to devote their efforts to new innovations and advancements in various fields."

The new ideas that emerged from reasoning and reason-based thought processes were then used to 'challenge the long-standing political and religious practices.' Many rulers in Europe used religious institutions to assert their authority; therefore, questioning the legitimacy of the church meant questioning the legitimacy of the governments of that time. The arguments of 'The Social Contract' can be best understood in the context of this dissenting backdrop of that era.

Rousseau wanted to change the prevailing ideas about what a legitimate government should actually be like, and in some cases, he was successful. After the publication of 'The Social Contract' in 1762, his political ideas became so popular that he was asked to draft a constitution for Corsica and to advise on the new political system of Poland.

What did the 'social contract' say?

According to Rousseau, the only legitimate form of government is the rule of the people. This system of governance or democracy is based on the idea that only the people collectively are 'sovereign'—that is, the primary source of political authority.

At that time, it was a highly controversial position, especially in Rousseau's homeland of France, where all power was in the hands of the monarchy. For Rousseau, the rule of the people is the only legitimate government, as it is the only system that allows individuals to be governed while also having the opportunity to remain free—essentially a characteristic of the application of the 'general will.'

Rousseau proposes that the people will make decisions in accordance with the 'general will' as a collective entity. Acting according to the general will means making decisions in the interest of the whole society. When individuals come together, sacrificing their own interests and considering themselves as an indivisible part, working for the welfare of society, that is when it is considered the general will.

A social contract is an agreement through which individuals leave the 'state of nature' and enter into a legally governed civil society. By binding themselves to this contract, individuals give up their absolute freedom in exchange for peace and security.

In the book 'The Social Contract', Rousseau outlines the conditions under which individuals agree to leave the state of nature and enter into a political system, agreeing to be governed by others through a social contract. Rousseau believes that the main characteristic of an acceptable social contract is democratic governance. He particularly favored 'direct democracy', where the people themselves meet directly in assemblies to discuss and pass the laws necessary for their governance.

Context of the Book

The most important intellectual movement during Rousseau's time was Enlightenment; that is, a way of thinking that emphasizes the importance of reason. The influence of this Enlightenment is clearly evident in the book 'The Social Contract.'

Logic claims that knowledge must be the result of a logical and systematic examination of various ideas. From this perspective, the Enlightenment was associated with significant advancements in science, which ultimately paved the way for the Industrial Revolution. These concepts related to human rationality or judgment were also used to challenge the political and religious beliefs of the time.

In the book 'The Social Contract', Rousseau attempts to answer the questions of which form of government is legitimate and when individuals should obey their rulers. Rousseau rejects the notion of 'divine right' of kings or the idea of a power granted by the creator to rule. He also does not accept the theory that some people are inherently superior to others. According to him, 'the only legitimate sovereign power to govern a society is the collective will of the citizens themselves.'

General Scope of Discussion

Those whose ideas about the nature of government were most influential at that time were the English political philosophers Thomas Hobbes and John Locke, the Dutch Hugo Grotius, and the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle.

Thomas Hobbes and Grotius: Hobbes argues in his book 'Leviathan' (1651) that a strong government is essential for society; otherwise, society will turn into a bloody battlefield. On the other hand, Grotius argued that rulers have absolute rights over their subjects, and this means that even a tyrannical regime can be considered legitimate.
Aristotle: He claimed that certain specific classes in society are inherently more suited to governance than others.
John Locke: Locke proposed a form of government that does not support authoritarian rule. His argument was that the only legitimate basis for a ruler's authority is the protection of the rights of individuals in society.

Rousseau's main goal was to prove why the arguments of Hobbes, Grotius, and Aristotle were wrong and to establish a foundation for a just and fair government through this. While he generally agreed with Locke's ideas, he disagreed on a fundamental point. Rousseau believed that this social contract should not only be between a ruler and the rest of society; rather, it should be among each individual in society with one another.

Main Content

Rousseau argued in his book that a government can only be legitimate if it is formed with the consent of the governed. He primarily sought to answer the question, 'What kind of political system will people consent to in a free and fair environment?'

In addressing this issue, Rousseau introduces the concept of the 'general will.' Rousseau's argument is that by following the general will, the sovereign power can govern justly. In this system, individuals remain free, as people consider themselves primarily as part of an indivisible whole rather than viewing themselves as distinct individuals.

Then Rousseau discusses sovereignty and presents the idea that the people must be sovereign. This means that legitimate governance must be democratic. Rousseau makes the startling proposal that if someone goes against this general will, they will be 'forced to be free.' In practical terms, this means that they will be compelled to act in accordance with the collective decision of the entire community.

Criticism and Limitations

The most significant response to Rousseau's ideas in this book came even before its publication. In 1748, Scottish philosopher David Hume dissected the theory of social contract in his essay 'Of the Original Contract.' Hume's main arguments were:

This theory considers all political rights and obligations to arise from a social contract, yet in the history of the world, there has never been any actual existence of such a contract.
There is no way to know whether the circumstances under which the social contract is made are free and fair.

Another criticism comes from the Swiss philosopher Benjamin Constant in 1816. According to Constant, since democracy demands that the people be transformed into 'citizen-machines,' it cannot coexist with extensive personal freedom.

Rousseau's answer might be that the social contract is not a historical fact, but rather a theoretical framework. It is a mental experiment through which it can be verified whether the current political system allows people to live freely or not.

Impact on Contemporary Research

One of the most important thinkers of the modern era inspired by Rousseau is John Rawls. In his famous book 'A Theory of Justice,' Rawls attempts to answer a question that Rousseau used to begin his discussion. Rawls also adopts a 'contractualist perspective,' and the concept of 'original position' that he employs is similar to Rousseau's idea of the 'state of nature.'

Summary

Students should still read Rousseau's 'The Social Contract' today. The main reason is the fundamental question he raises: What are the conditions of a legitimate government? This work is one of the most controversial and influential in the history of Western political thought.

The widespread influence of this book is due to Rousseau being one of the few thinkers who deeply contemplated how an individual can free themselves from becoming a slave to another person's personal will. For any student interested in gaining profound insights into the history of political thought, contemporary political philosophy, or human nature, 'The Social Contract' is an invaluable read.

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